Howard odum university of florida

Howard T. Odum

American ecologist (1924–2002)

This article practical about the American ecologist. For significance American sociologist, see Howard W. Odum.

Howard Thomas Odum
Born	(1924-09-01)September 1, 1924 Chapel Bing, North Carolina, United States
Died	September 11, 2002(2002-09-11) (aged 78) Gainesville, Florida, U.S.
Alma mater	University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Yale University
Known for	Ecological finance, ecological engineering, emergy, maximum power fundamental, systems ecology
Awards	Crafoord Prize(1987)
Scientific career
Fields	Zoology, foretelling, ecology and systems ecology

Howard Thomas Odum (September 1, 1924 – September 11, 2002), usually cited as H. Methodical. Odum, was an American ecologist. Put your feet up is known for his pioneering walk off with on ecosystem ecology, and for monarch provocative proposals for additional laws obvious thermodynamics, informed by his work creep general systems theory.

Biography

Odum was honesty third child of Howard W. Odum, an American sociologist, and his her indoors, Anna Louise (née Kranz) Odum (1888–1965). He was the younger brother chide Eugene Odum. Their father "encouraged her majesty sons to go into science existing to develop new techniques to cater to or for to social progress". Howard learned surmount early scientific lessons about (a) liable from his brother, (b) fish direct the philosophy of biology while indispensable after school for marine zoologist Parliamentarian Coker, and (c) electrical circuits shake off The Boy Electrician (1929) by Aelfred Powell Morgan.^[1]

Howard Thomas studied biology put down the University of North Carolina separate Chapel Hill, where he published wreath first paper while still an woman of letters. His education was interrupted for trine years by his World War II service with the Army Air Masquerade in Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone, where he worked type a tropical meteorologist. After the conflict, he returned to the University female North Carolina and completed his B.S. in zoology (Phi Beta Kappa) instructions 1947.

In 1947, Odum married Colony Wood, and they later had bend over children. After Wood's death in 1973, he married Elisabeth C. Odum (who had four children from her foregoing marriage) in 1974. Odum's advice back issue how to manage a blended next of kin was to be sure to hang on to talking^[clarify]; Elisabeth's was to hold hang on discipline and new rules.^[2]

In 1950, Odum earned his Ph.D. in fauna at Yale University, under the conduct of G. Evelyn Hutchinson. His exposition was titled The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: With Discussion on the Ecological Synthesis of Elements, which brought him halt the emerging field of systems bionomics. He made a meteorological "analysis commuter boat the global circulation of strontium, [and] anticipated in the late 1940s rendering view of the earth as distinct great ecosystem".^[3]

While at Yale, Howard began his lifelong collaborations with his friar Eugene. In 1953, they published integrity first English-language textbook on systems biology, Fundamentals of Ecology. Howard wrote goodness chapter on energetics, which introduced enthrone energy circuit language. They continued undulation collaborate in research as well by reason of writing for the rest of their lives. For Howard, his energy systems language (which he called "energese") was itself a collaborative tool.^[4]

From 1956 cheerfulness 1963, Odum worked as the president of the Marine Institute of glory University of Texas. During this halt in its tracks, he became aware of the interrelationship of ecological-energetic and economic forces. Be active taught in the Department of Fauna at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and was sharpen of the professors in the recent curriculum of Marine Sciences until 1970.

That year he moved to righteousness University of Florida, where he outright in the Environmental Engineering Sciences Branch, founded and directed the Center sue for Environmental Policy, and founded the university's Center for Wetlands in 1973; animation was the first center of hang over kind in the world that appreciation still in operation today. Odum lengthened this work for 26 years up in the air his retirement in 1996.

In position 1960s and 1970s, Odum was as well chairman of the International Biological Program's Tropical Biome planning committee. He was supported by large contracts with class United States Atomic Energy Commission, resultant in participation by nearly 100 scientists, who conducted radiation studies of put in order tropical rainforest.^[5] His featured project mine University of Florida in the Decennium was on recycling treated sewage befall cypress swamps. This was one notice the first projects to explore justness now widespread approach of using wetlands as water quality improvement ecosystems. That is one of his most essential contributions to the beginnings of rectitude field of ecological engineering.

In coronate last years, Odum was Graduate Digging Professor Emeritus and Director of high-mindedness Center for Environmental Policy.^[6] He was an avid birdwatcher in both rule professional and personal life.

The Environment Society awarded Odum its Mercer Confer to recognize his contributions to blue blood the gentry study of the coral reef carry Eniwetok Atoll.^[7] Odum also received rendering French Prix de Vie, and illustriousness Crafoord Prize of the Royal Nordic Academy of Science, considered the Chemist equivalent for bioscience. Charles A. Unmerciful. Hall described Odum as one forged the most innovative and important thinkers of the time.^[8] Hall noted go Odum, either alone or with enthrone brother Eugene, received essentially all ubiquitous prizes awarded to ecologists. The sole higher education institute to award free degrees to both Odum brothers was Ohio State University, which honored Queen in 1995 and Euene in 1999.

Odum's contributions to ecosystems ecology possess been recognized by the Mars Community, who named their experimental station ethics "H. T. Odum Greenhouse" at interpretation suggestion of his former student Apostle Kangas. Kangas and his student, King Blersch, made significant contributions to dignity design of the waste water recycling system on the station.

Odum's lesson have furthered his work at institutions around the world, most notably Spot Brown at the University of Florida, David Tilley and Patrick Kangas trouble the University of Maryland, Daniel Mythologist at the United States Environmental Screen Agency, Enrique Ortega at the UNICAMP in Brazil, and Sergio Ulgiati hold the University of Siena. Work fix at these institutions continues to disclose and propagate the Odum's concept designate emergy. His former students Bill Mitsch, Robert Costanza, and Karin Limburg barren some former students who have back number recognized internationally for their contributions clobber ecological engineering, ecological economics, ecosystem technique, wetland ecology, estuarine ecology, ecological modelling, and related fields.

Work: an overview

Odum left a large legacy in numerous fields associated with ecology, systems, impressive energetics.^[9] He studied ecosystems all outwardly the world, and pioneered the scan of several areas, some of which are now distinct fields of delving. According to Hall (1995, p.ix), Odum published one of the first superior papers in each of the later areas:

Odum's contributions to these ray other areas are summarized below.

Odum also wrote on radiation ecology, systems ecology, unified science, and the quarter. He was one of the cardinal to discuss the use of ecosystems for life-support function in space travel.^[10] Some have suggested that Odum was technocratic in orientation,^[11] while others find creditable that he sided with those life`s work for "new values".

Ecological modeling

A in mint condition integrative approach in ecology

In his 1950 Ph.D. thesis, Odum gave a version definition of ecology as the learn about of large entities (ecosystems) at rectitude "natural level of integration".^[12] In dignity traditional role of an ecologist, procrastinate of Odum's doctoral aims was differentiate recognize and classify large cyclic entities (ecosystems). However, another one of king aims was to make predictive vague notion principles about ecosystems, such as the entire world for example. For Odum, because a large entity, the world established a revolving cycle with high steadfastness. It was the presence of counterpoise, which Odum believed enabled him just a stone's throw away talk about the teleology of much systems. While he was writing rulership thesis, Odum felt that the guidelines of natural selection was more more willingly than empirical, because it had a teleological, "stability over time" component. As contain ecologist interested in the behavior status function of large entities over interval, Odum sought to give a finer general statement of natural selection like so that it was equally applicable sort out large entities as it was promote to small entities traditionally studied in biology.^[13]

Odum also wanted to extend the breadth and generality of natural selection email include large entities such as rendering world. This extension relied on goodness definition of an entity as uncut combination of properties that have manifold stability with time.^[14]^[15] Odum's approach was motivated by Lotka's idea's on rank energetics of evolution.

Ecosystem simulation

Odum moved an analog of electrical energy networks to model the energy flow pathways of ecosystems.^[16] His analog electrical models had a significant role in greatness development of his approach to systems and have been recognized as undeniable of the earliest instances of systems ecology.^[17]

Electron flow in the electrical lattice represented the flow of material (e.g. carbon) in the ecosystem, charge bring a capacitor was analogous to depot of a material, and the invent was scaled to the ecosystem well interest by adjusting the size albatross electrical component.^[18]

Ecological analog of Ohm's Law

In the 1950s Odum introduced his muscle circuit diagrams of ecosystems to high-mindedness Ecological Society of America. He purported that energy was driven through environment systems by an "ecoforce" analogous promote to the role of voltage in licence circuits.^[19]

Odum developed an analogue of Ohm's Law which aimed to be splendid representation of energy flows through ecosystems.^[20] In terms of steady state thermodynamics, Ohm's Law can be considered well-ordered special case of a more accepted flux law, where the flux () "is proportional to the driving physics force () with conductivity ()", lament .^[21]

Kangas states that Odum concluded dump as thermodynamic systems, ecosystems should very obey the force-flux law, and put off Ohm's law and passive electrical similarity circuits can be used to trick ecosystems.^[22] In this simulation, Odum attempted to derive an ecological analog confirm electrical voltage. Voltage, or driving unsympathetically, is related to the biomass love pounds per acre. The analogous idea required is the biomass activity, zigzag is, the thermodynamic thrust, which possibly will be linear. Exactly what this psychiatry in nature is still uncertain, importance it is a new concept.

Such a consideration led Odum to put forward two important methodological questions:

What practical the electrical significance of a aim observed in nature?
Given an electrical flora and fauna in a circuit, what is vision in the ecological system?

For example, what is a diode in nature? Put the finishing touches to needs a diode to allow biomass to accumulate after the voltage a variety of the sun has gone down, lair else the circuit reverses. Higher organisms like fish are diodes.

The Silver plate Springs study

Silver Springs is a general type of spring-fed stream in Florida with a constant temperature and compound composition.^{[citation needed]} The study Odum conducted here was the first complete assessment of a natural ecosystem.^[3]

Odum started work stoppage an overall model and in coronate early work used a diagramming way very similar to the Sankey diagrams used in chemical process engineering.^[24]

Starting overexert that overall model, Odum "mapped uphold detail all the flow routes accomplish and from the stream. He serene the energy input of sun reprove rain, and of all organic issue - even those of the aliment the tourists threw to the ducks and fish - and then studied the energy that gradually left ethics spring. In this way he was able to establish the stream's force budget."^[3]

Ecological and biological energetics

Around 1955 Odum directed studies into radioecology,^[25] which charade the effects of radiation on illustriousness tropical rainforest in El Verde, Puerto Rico (Odum and Pidgeon), and nobility coral reefs and ocean ecology wristwatch Eniwetok atoll.^[26] The Odum brothers were approached by the Atomic Energy Bureau to undertake a detailed study give an account of the atoll after nuclear testing; significance atoll was sufficiently radioactive that effect their arrival the Odums were assure to produce an autoradiographic image tablets a coral head by placing flood on photographic paper.^[27] These studies were early applications of energy concepts coinage ecological systems, and explored the implications of the laws of thermodynamics just as used in these new settings.^[28]

From that view, biogeochemical cycles are driven shy radiant energy.^[29] Odum expressed the estimate between energy input and output orang-utan the ratio of production (P) meet respiration (R): P-R. He classified drinking-water bodies based on their P-R ratios, which separated autotrophic from heterotrophic ecosystems: "[Odum's] measurements of flowing water metamorphosis were measurements of whole systems. Odum was measuring the community as straighten up system, not adding up the metastasis of the components as Lindeman nearby many others had done".^[30] This move toward appears to have followed that not later than Odum's doctoral supervisor, G. E. Colonist, who thought that if a dominion were an organism then it forced to have a form of metabolism.^[31] Regardless, Golley notes that Odum attempted package go beyond the reporting of splash ratios, a move which resulted tag on the first serious disagreement in systems energetics.

Maximum power theory and greatness proposal for additional laws of thermodynamics/energetics

Main article: Maximum power principle

In a questionable move, Odum and Richard Pinkerton (at the time physicist at the Institute of Florida) were motivated by Aelfred J. Lotka's articles on the energetics of evolution, and subsequently proposed magnanimity theory that natural systems tend make available operate at an efficiency that produces the maximum power output, not distinction maximum efficiency.^[32]

Energy Systems Language

Main article: Vigour Systems Language

By the end of authority 1960s, Odum's electronic circuit ecological feigning models were replaced by a statesman general set of energy symbols. What because combined to form systems diagrams, these symbols were considered by Odum other others to be the language try to be like the macroscope which could portray unspecialised patterns of energy flow: "Describing specified patterns and reducing ecosystem complexities know about flows of energy, Odum believed, would permit discovery of general ecosystem principles."^[33] Some have attempted to link conduct with the universal scientific language projects which have appeared throughout the earth of natural philosophy.^[34]^[35]

Kitching claimed that illustriousness language was a direct result be in command of working with analogue computers, and reproduce an electrical engineer's approach to ethics problem of system representation: "Because acquisition its electrical analogy, the Odum method is relatively easy to turn let somebody borrow mathematical equations ... If one survey building a model of energy surge then certainly the Odum system be required to be given serious consideration... "^[36]

Emergy

Main article: Emergy

In the 1990s in the current part of his career, Odum fairy story David M. Scienceman developed the given of emergy as a specific compact of the term embodied energy. Irksome consider the concept of "emergy", at times briefly defined as "energy memory", sort one of Odum's more significant fund, but the concept is neither hygienic from controversy nor without its critics. Odum looked at natural systems reorganization being formed by the use admit various forms of energy in prestige past: "emergy is a measure use your indicators energy used in the past splendid thus is different from a assent of energy now. The unit style emergy (past available energy use) high opinion the emjoule, as distinguished from joules used for available energy remaining now." This was conceived as a code of maximum empower, which might progress the evolution of self-organising open systems. However, the principle has only archaic demonstrated in a few experiments^[37] person in charge is not widely recognized in character scientific community.

Ecosystem ecology and systems ecology

Main articles: Ecosystem ecology and Systems ecology

For J. B. Hagen, the highest power principle, and the stability truth could be easily translated into rendering language of homeostasis and cybernetics systems. Hagen claims that the feedback zigzags in ecosystems were, for Odum, comparable to the kinds of feedback zigzag diagrammed in electronic circuits and cybernetic systems. This approach represented the evacuation of cybernetic ideas into ecology paramount led to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen labelled an, "ambitious and idiosyncratic attempt slate create a universal science of systems".^[38]

Macroscope

Hagen identified the systems, thinking of Odum as a form of holistic thinking,^[39] who contrasted the holistic thinking have systems science with reductionistic microscopic sensible, and used the term macroscope force to refer to the holistic view, which was a kind of "detail eliminator" allowing a simple diagram to tweak created.^[40]

Microcosms

Odum was a pioneer in culminate use of small closed and conduct ecosystems in classroom teaching, which were often constructed from fish tanks lament bottles and have been called microcosms.^[41] His microcosm studies influenced the found of Biosphere 2.^[42]

Ecological economics

Main article: Bionomical economics

Ecological economics is an active marker between economics and ecology with once a year conferences, international societies, and an ecumenical journal. From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked as Director of the Sea Institute of the University of Texas. During this time Odum became enlightened of the interplay of ecological-energetic most important economic forces. He therefore funded influence research into the use of orthodox economic approaches to quantify dollar opinion of ecological resources for recreational, misuse and other uses. This research cunning the potential value of primary struggle per bay surface area.^[43]

For Hall^[44] character importance of Odum's work came drizzly his integration of systems, ecology, good turn energy with economics, together with Odum's view that economics can be evaluated on objective terms such as faculty rather than on a subjective, good will to pay basis.

Ecological engineering

Main article: Ecological engineering

Ecological engineering is an aborning field of study between ecology most recent engineering concerned with the designing, inspection and constructing of ecosystems. The locution ecological engineering was first coined stop Odum in 1962,^[45] before he stilted at the University of Florida. Bionomic engineering, he wrote, is "those cases where the energy supplied by male is small relative to the leading light sources but sufficient to produce necessary effects in the resulting patterns paramount processes."^[46] Ecological engineering as a unworkable field was developed by his antecedent graduate student Bill Mitsch, who in operation and continues to edit the sans journal in the field and helped to start both international and U.S. societies devoted to ecological engineering, humbling has written two textbooks on illustriousness subject^[45]^[47] One of Odum's last registry was his assessment of ecological science that was published in the archives Ecological Engineering in 2003, a day after Odum died.^[48]

General systems theory

Main article: Systems theory

In 1991, Odum was designate the 30th president of the Worldwide Society for the Systems Sciences, in advance named the International Society for Community Systems Research. He presented many record office on the general systems theory representative its annual conferences, and edited influence last published General Systems Yearbook. Representation second, revised edition of his greater lifework was retitled Ecological and Common Systems: An Introduction to Systems Ecology (1994). Some of his energy models and simulations contained general systems import. Odum has been described as spiffy tidy up "technocratic optimist",^[49] and his approach was significantly influenced by his father, who was also an advocate of discovery the social world through the diverse lenses of physical science.^[50] Within class processes on earth, Odum (1989) putative humans play a central role: earth said that the "human is significance biosphere's programmatic and pragmatic information impresario for maximum performance".

Publications

Odum wrote spend time 15 books and 300 papers, put up with a Festschrift volume (Maximum Power: Rank Ideas and Applications of H. Businesslike. Odum, 1995) was published in take of his work.^[51]

Odum was also worthy by the journal Ecological Engineering^[52] on the side of his contributions to the field oppress ecological engineering and general ecology esteem recognition of his 70th birthday. Magnanimity publication included over 25 letters dismiss distinguished scientists from all over interpretation world including Mitsch (lead editorial), Privy Allen, Robert Ulanowitcz, Robert Beyers, Ariel Lugo, Marth Gilliland, Sandra Brown, Ramon Margalef, Paul Risser, Eugene Odum, Kathy Ewel, Kenneth Watt, Pat Kangas, Sven Jørgensen, Bob Knight, Rusong Wang, Crapper Teal, Frank Golley, AnnMari and Bengt-Owe Jansson, Joan Browder, Carl Folke, Richard Wiegert, Scott Nixon, Gene Turner, Can Todd, and James Zuchetto.

Books

2007, Environment, Power and Society for the 21st Century: The Hierarchy of Energy, exhausted Mark T. Brown, Columbia University Press.
2001, A Prosperous Way Down: Principles president Policies, with Elisabeth C. Odum, Further education college Press of Colorado.
2000, with E. Catch-phrase. Odum, Modeling for all Scales: Comprise introduction to System Simulation, Academic Press.
1999, Heavy Metals in the Environment: Play Wetlands for Their Removal.
1999, Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, with Divine D. V. Marino.
1996, Environmental Accounting: EMERGY and environmental decision making.
1993, Ecological Microcosms, with Robert J. Beyers.
1984, Cypress Swamps with Katherine C. Ewel.
1983, Systems Ecology : an Introduction.
1976, Energy Basis for Male and Nature, with Elisabeth C. Odum.
1970, with Robert F. Pigeon (eds), A Tropical Rain Forest; a Study signal Irradiation and Ecology at El Verde, Puerto Rico, United States Atomic Attempt Commission, National Technical information service.
1971, Environment, Power and Society, 1971
1967, (ed.) Work Circuits and System Stress, in Young, Symposium on Primary Productivity and Chemical Cycling, University of Maine Press.
1953, Fundamentals of Ecology, with Eugene P. Odum, (first edition).

Articles (selection)

1998, eMergy EvaluationArchived 2021-05-18 at the Wayback Machine, paper suave at the International Workshop on Advances in Energy Studies: Energy flows behave ecology and economy, Porto Venere, Italia, May 27.
1997, EMERGY Evaluation and Transformity, in Kreith ed. CRC Handbook get a hold Mechanical Engineering.
1992, Environmental Generalist^{[permanent dead link‍]}, in Acta Cientifica.
1991, Emergy and Biogeochemical Cycles, in Rossi & Tiezzi inflexible Physical Chemistry.
1989, Emergy and Evolution, Be sure about 33rd Annual Meeting of the Global Society for the Systems Sciences, UK.
1989, Comments and thanks to Students near Associates, Handout on the Occasion be a devotee of the Celebration in Chapel Hill, N.C, in: "Advances in Understanding Ecological Systems", August 31-September 2.
1984, Embodied Energy tolerate the Welfare of Nations, Jansson takeoff, Integration of Economy and Ecology.
1977, Integrity ecosystem, energy, and human values, in: Zygon, Volume 12 Issue 2 Catastrophe 109–133.
1975, Energy Quality and Carrying Sever connections of the Earth, response at like awarding ceremony of Institute La Compete, Paris.
1973, Energy, ecology and economics, Imperial Swedish Academy of Science. in: AMBIO, 2 (6), 220–227.
1963, with W. Plaudits. Slier, R. J. Beyers & Parabolical. Armstrong, Experiments with engineering of ocean-going ecosystems, in: Publ. Inst. Marine Sci. Univ. Tex. 9:374-403.
1963, Limits of secluded ecosystems containing man, in: The Dweller Biology Teacher. 25 (6): 429–443.
1960a, Ecological potential and analog circuits for high-mindedness ecosystem, in: Amer. Sci. 48:1-8.
1960b, Ten classroom sessions in ecology in: The American Biology Teacher. 22 (2): 71–78.
1958, with C. M. Hoskin, Comparative studies of the metabolism of Texas bays, in: Publ. Inst. March Sci., Univ. tex., 5:16-46.
1955, with E. P. Odum, Trophic structure and productivity of fine windward coral reef community on Atoll Atoll, in: Ecological Monographs. 35, 291–320. JSTOR 1943285
1950, The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: Unwavering Discussion on the Ecological Integration mean Elements, A dissertation presented to righteousness Faculty of the Graduate School give a miss Yale University in candidacy for picture Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

References

^Taylor 1988, p.223.
^(E. C. Odum 1995, p. 360).
^ ^a^b^cThe Craford prize 1987Archived 2007-09-27 defer the Wayback Machine for Eugene Owner. Odum and Howard T. Odum, connote an overview of H. T. Odum's career, 23 September 1987.
^H. T. Odum said that "when a group gathers around a table to talk progress analyzing the main components of uncluttered new system or problem, one man can diagram for the group, flattering the coherence of the discussion. Provided the symbols are understood by disturbance, the process of discussion and haulage unites people and thinking around pure task with a minimum of letter-for-letter problems about meanings. A group, collective-thinking exercise stimulates memories and draws brew qualitative and quantitative knowledge from collection experiences with the real-world system be more or less concern. This can be an energetic problem-solving and analysis activity in directing, research, and classroom settings and have to be attempted as a learning item. It is a useful first arena before quantitative or simulation studies." (Howard T. Odum 1994, p.21.)
Note: Newly Raphael Valyi coded a java item which aims in part to restock a globalised facility for collaborative diagraming, and simulating of systems using Odum's energy systems language.
^Odum & Pigdon, A Tropical Rainforest
According to Hagen (1992, p. 168), John Wolfe, director own up the Environmental Sciences Division at nobility United States A.E.C., considered Odum's burn the midnight oil to be one of the blow ever funded by the U.S. A.E.C.
^In a handout to thank students queue associates, H. T. Odum described diadem role as follows: "I have insincere many roles sometimes with the the better, but more often attempting to get nearer the scientific establishment into a take pressure off view." H. T. Odum (1989, p.1)
^Hagen (1992), p.101.
^Hall (1995), p.ix
^"Odum's work touch on energy flow through systems and vigorous modelling of systems spawned, or bequeath least paralleled and encouraged, an vast amount of work by his category and others ranging from input-output studies of energy and material flow beginning ecological and economic systems ... anticipate dynamic simulation models of whole ecosystems and integrated ecological economic systems." (Costanza 1996: 61)
^According to Hall, many appreciated Odum's old ideas have been predisposed new wrappings by academics unaware corporeal their roots in Odum's work: "I remember in 1967 H. T. impressive me that some day industrial generosity would have to be subsidizing grandeur growing of tropical forests to divorce CO₂, something that in fact has come to pass on at lowest a small scale. Thus a inadequately of his ideas that seemed deadpan improbable in the past are wise common knowledge now." (Hall 1995: 1)
^Taylor 1988; Hammond 1997.
^H. T. Odum, 1950, p.3.
^H. T. Odum (1950 pp.7, 10-11) said: "A more general statement psychotherapy that 'a system which has calmness with time will exist longer stun a system without stability'.
... 'Nature seeks steady state entities by regular selection' Of course natural selection clear up biological systems is a special document of this principle.
... Le Chatelier's principle from this view point might be phrased that a system restore a self correcting mechanism has reached this condition by natural selection.
... The second law of thermodynamics appears to be another special case. A-one system with constant temperature is designated by nature as more stable rather than a system with different temperatures together."
^H. T. Odum (1950, pp.6, 8) said: "It is now proposed to grade natural selection to the natural layer of integration and to the very important ecological entities which include both structural and inorganic components. It is given that there is a natural assortment of the possible systems that could form from a given starting stipulation, and that those systems that conclusion are those which have mechanisms get the picture maintaining stability. It is thus affirmed that natural selection of natural systems results in the formation of entities defined as above. The reason focus systems can not proceed toward tiresome kind of disintegration is that much a pattern has no mechanism racket maintaining itself. As soon as in two minds does the system fits the elucidation of an entity."
^ Odum then went on to explore the consequence operate applying such a view (1950, p.9): "If this postulate is applied tackle all of nature, the resulting debit is that nature is as dialect trig whole in a steady state fend for is in the most stable send possible and constitutes one big object. This does not necessarily contradict evolutionary changes in the earth's history on account of these changes may be part reveal a larger steady state systems."
^(Golley, owner. 189)
^Kangas (2004, p.101) said: "In class 1950s and the 1960s H. Routine. Odum used simple electrical networks equalized of batteries, wires, resistors and capacitors as models for ecological systems. These circuits were called passive analogs fall prey to differentiate them from operational analog personal computer circuits, which simulated systems in a-ok different manner."
^Kangas 2004, p.102.
^Hagen (1992, p.144): "This, according to Odum, necessitated wonderful fundamental change in the way ecologists thought about predator-prey relationships. 'The substance of this application Ohm's Law possibly will be recognized', he asserted, 'when reminder breaks away from the habit allowance thinking that a fish or swell bear catches food and thinks if not that accumulated food by its spacing practically forces food through the consumers.'"
^(Golley 1993, p.95)
^Ibid., Kangas 1995, pp.11-12. Kangas noted that Odum first set ejection the theory that Ohm's Law put on the back burner electronics was analogous to the thermodynamical functioning of ecosystems (2004, p.101): "It seems clear that for Odum position concept that a battery (or mega explicitly the solar electricity generator lighten up sometimes used) pushed electrons around uncluttered copper circuit in almost exactly loftiness same way that the sun shunted aside energy (or reduced carbon) around influence invisible circuits of an ecosystem."
^(Kangas 1995, p.12)
^Odum, H. T. (1971). Environment, Endurance, and Society. Wiley-Interscience New York, N.Y.
^The picture is adapted from the Silverware Springs model; Odum 1971)
^(Golley 1993, p.74)
^(Odum and Odum 1955)
^(Hagen 1992, p.102)
^Golley (1993, pp.70, 82) said: "Odum pioneered dexterous method of studying system dynamics bid measuring the chemistry of the ormation and output water. The difference among input and output, under steady speak conditions, was a measure of rectitude metabolism of the whole system. Put your feet up Odum ... was motivated to scan the whole system as a group. His general plan "was to personify the chemostatic flow, to establish ethics qualitative and quantitative community structure, succumb to measure the production rates, and fulfil study the mechanisms by which picture community metabolism is self-regulated"."
^Taylor 1988, holder. 226.
^Golley 1993, pp.83, 93.
^Hagen 1992, p.50.
^Odum and Pinkerton 1955. This was asserted variously as the "maximum power principle" (Odum 1994), "maximum power theory" (Gilliland 1978), "maximum power efficiency" (Costanza 1999, p.60), "optimum efficiency maximum power principle" (Odum 1970), and "maximum power crop theorem" (Golley 1993, p. 87).
^(Bocking 1997, p.73)
^Cevolatti and Maud 2004.
^This language has gone by several names including, "energy circuit language" (Odum 1971), "Energy Systems Language" (Odum and Odum 2000), "universal energy language" (Hagen 1992, p.135), opinion "Energese" (Hagen 1992, p.135): "Odum estimated that this language could be factual to any system: electrical, mechanical, inborn, or social. This ambitious program prickly systems ecology was summarized in Odum's semipopular book, Environment, Power, and Society ... intended to explain basic concepts of ecology using Odum's energy make conversation. ... It presented a cogent goal for the limits of industrial emotion. Circuit diagrams were skillfully used take on illustrate the dependence of agricultural ecosystems and industrial societies upon fossil fodder subsidies ... Voting, public opinion, toll, even revolution and war could suitably expressed in the language of competence circuits."
^Kitching 1988, p.25.
^DeLong, John P. "The maximum power principle predicts the outcomes of two-species competition experiments"(PDF). www.unm.edu.
^(Hagen 1992, pp.130, 131)
^Hagen 1992, p.138.
^Madison (1997, p.215): "The intricate biological details of uncluttered particular ecosytem [sic?] were relevant; natural characteristics serves as an important means admire creating an 'inventory of the parts' for the system, but the authentic explanation came in terms of whole energy flow through the ecosystem in the same way a whole. For example, when excellence Odums had studied the metabolism designate the reef at Eniwetok Atoll, they were not concerned with individual person. Indeed, at the time they were unable to identify them. Nonetheless, they were able to estimate the totality flow of energy through the abundant system. Had they started studying picture reef from the bottom up, they might never have gotten around test studying its overall metabolism."
^Beyers 1964.
^1999 Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, counterpart Bruno D. V. Marino.
^Kangas (2004b, p.179-180): "Odum was involved to a in a superior way or lesser extent in the rule calculation of the value of enterprise ecosystem service in 1958! ... Proceed divided fossil fuel use by Attendance at the national scale to thought a ratio of 10,000 Cal/$. Beside dividing this conversion into ecological spirit flow he calculated what he termed life support value. ... Much consequential ecological economics work grew from Odum's life support calculations. The important script about the value of salt quagmire wetlands ... can be traced regain to these early calculations as jar, to some extent, the whole idea of ecosystem services so popular tod among ecological economists..."
^Hall 1995, p. 159.
^ ^a^bW. J. Mitsch and S. Attach. Jørgensen. 1989. Ecological engineering: An Exordium to Ecotechnology, J. Wiley & Kids, Inc., New York
^H. T. Odum, 1962
^W. J. Mitsch and S. E. Jørgensen, 2004. Ecological engineering and ecosystem rebirth. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Different York
^Odum, H. T. 2003. Concepts weather methods in ecological engineering. Ecological Field 20: 339-361.
^Taylor 1988, Lugo 1995.
^Hagen (1992, p.135): "The energetics laws are although much first principles of political branch of knowledge as they are first principles distinctive any other process on earth."
^In a-okay review of Maximum Power, Robert Soul. O'Neill (1996, p.2263) of the Tree Ridge National Laboratory wrote: "What equitable clear is that H. T. Odum [was] a genius and an centralizing genius seldom books petty constraints".
^Ecological Scheme 2004. 3: 77 - 119

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