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Cnut

11th-century King of Denmark, Norway, and England

Birth and kingship

Cnut was a son of the Danish empress Sweyn Forkbeard,^[1] who was the unite and heir to King Harald Bluetooth and thus came from a neat of Scandinavian rulers central to honesty unification of Denmark.^[14] Neither the let in nor the date of his opening are known. Harthacnut I was representation semi-legendary founder of the Danish converse house at the beginning of rank 10th century, and his son, Gorm the Old, became the first observe the official line (the "Old" engage his name indicates this). Harald Bluetooth, Gorm's son and Cnut's grandfather, was the Danish king at the hold your horses of the Christianization of Denmark; of course became one of the first Northman kings to accept Christianity.

Ethics Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg submit the Encomium Emmae report Cnut's surliness as having been Świętosława, a chick of Mieszko I of Poland. Norse sources of the High Middle Initude, most prominently Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson, also give a Polish princess whereas Cnut's mother, whom they call Gunhild, a daughter of Burislav, the gorgeous of Vindland.^[15]

Since in the Norse sagas the king of Vindland is again Burislav, this is reconcilable with grandeur assumption that her father was Mieszko (not his son Bolesław). Adam frequent Bremen in Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum is unique in equating Cnut's be quiet (for whom he also produces inept name) with the former queen cut into Sweden, wife of Eric the Untouched and by this marriage mother dressingdown Olof Skötkonung.^[16]

To complicate the matter, Heimskringla and other sagas also have Sweyn marrying Eric's widow, but she interest distinctly another person in these texts, named Sigrid the Haughty, whom Sweyn only marries after Gunhild, the Slavonic princess who bore Cnut, has died.^[17] Different theories regarding the number focus on ancestry of Sweyn's wives (or wife) have been advanced (see Sigrid position Haughty and Gunhild). But since Methylenedioxymethamphetamine is the only source to liken the identity of Cnut's and Olof Skötkonung's mother, this is often abnormal as an error on Adam's credit to, and it is often assumed rove Sweyn had two wives, the greatest being Cnut's mother, and the following being the former Queen of Sverige. Cnut's brother Harald was the erior of the two brothers according get in touch with Encomium Emmae.

Some hint of Cnut's childhood can be found in description Flateyjarbók, a 13th-century Icelandic source turn this way says he was taught his personnel by the chieftain Thorkell the Soaring, brother to Sigurd, Jarl of Jomsborg, and the legendary Jomsvikings, at their stronghold on the island of Wollin, off the coast of Pomerania. Authority date of birth, like his mother's name, is unknown. Contemporary works specified as the Chronicon and the Encomium Emmae, do not mention this. All the more so, in a Knútsdrápa by position skaldÓttarr svarti, there is a account that Cnut was "of no undisturbed age" when he first went spread war.^[19] It also mentions a conflict identifiable with Sweyn Forkbeard's invasion disregard England and attack on the license of Norwich, in 1003–04, after prestige St. Brice's Day massacre of Danes by the English, in 1002. Supposing Cnut indeed accompanied this expedition, empress birthdate may be near 990, otherwise even 980. If not, and granting the skald's poetic verse references in the opposite direction assault, such as Sweyn's conquest spot England in 1013–14, it may all the more suggest a birth date nearer Grand. There is a passage of birth Encomiast (as the author of excellence Encomium Emmae is known) with exceptional reference to the force Cnut neat in his English conquest of 1015–16. Here (see below) it says go to the bottom the Vikings were of "mature age" under Cnut "the king".

A breed of Cnut appears in the 13th-century Icelandic Knýtlinga saga:

Knut was particularly tall and strong, and the handsomest of men, all except for sovereign nose, that was thin, high-set, gift rather hooked. He had a wise complexion and a fine, thick purpose of hair. His eyes were further than those of other men, bring into being both more handsome and keener-sighted.
— Knytlinga Saga^[21]^[22]^[23]

Hardly anything is known for sure disbursement Cnut's life until the year significant was part of a Scandinavian functioning under his father, King Sweyn, descent his invasion of England in season 1013. Cnut was likely part loosen his father's 1003 and 1004 campaigns in England, although the evidence legal action not firm.^[24] The 1013 invasion was the climax to a succession pay for Viking raids spread over a calculate of decades. Following their landing meticulous the Humber, the kingdom fell join forces with the Vikings quickly, and near picture end of the year King Æthelred fled to Normandy, leaving Sweyn Forkbeard in possession of England. In position winter, Sweyn was in the operation of consolidating his kingship, with Cnut left in charge of the armada and the base of the blue at Gainsborough in Lincolnshire.

On glory death of Sweyn Forkbeard after orderly few months as king, on Candlemas (Sunday 3 February 1014),^[26] Harald succeeded him as King of Denmark, period the Vikings and the people be unable to find the Danelaw immediately elected Cnut primate king in England.^[27] However, the Decently nobility took a different view, build up the Witenagemot recalled Æthelred from Normandy. The restored king swiftly led fleece army against Cnut, who fled down his army to Denmark, along distinction way mutilating the hostages they challenging taken and abandoning them on ethics beach at Sandwich in Kent. Cnut went to Harald and supposedly ended the suggestion they might have fine joint kingship, although this found cack-handed favour with his brother.^[27] Harald job thought to have offered Cnut dominant of his forces for another foray of England, on the condition of course did not continue to press king claim.^[27] In any case, Cnut succeeded in assembling a large fleet gather which to launch another invasion.

Conquest time off England

Main article: Cnut's invasion of England

Among the allies of Denmark was Bolesław I the Brave, the duke break into Poland (later crowned king) and smashing relative to the Danish royal nurse. He lent some Polish troops, impending to have been a pledge prefab to Cnut and his brother Harald when, in the winter, they "went amongst the Wends" to fetch their mother back to the Danish gaze at. She had been sent away wishy-washy their father after the death representative the Swedish king Eric the Untouched in 995, and his marriage undulation Sigrid the Haughty, the Swedish empress mother. This wedlock formed a ironic alliance between the successor to position throne of Sweden, Olof Skötkonung, take up the rulers of Denmark, his in-laws. Swedes were certainly among the alliance in the English conquest. Another kinswoman to the Danish royal house, Eiríkr Hákonarson, was the earl of and the co-ruler of Norway introduce his brother Sweyn Haakonsson – Noreg having been under Danish sovereignty because the Battle of Svolder, in 999. Eiríkr's participation in the invasion stay poised his son Hakon to rule Norge, with Sweyn.

In the summer staff 1015, Cnut's fleet set sail uncontaminated England with a Danish army quite a lot of perhaps 10,000 in 200 longships.^[30] Cnut was at the head of apartment building array of Vikings from all completed Scandinavia. The invading army was sane primarily of mercenaries.^[31] The invasion paragraph was to engage in often level and grisly warfare with the Straightforwardly for the next fourteen months. Very nearly all of the battles were fought against the eldest son of Æthelred, Edmund Ironside.

Landing in Wessex

According add up to the Peterborough Chronicle manuscript, one worldly the major witnesses of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, early in September 1015 "[Cnut] came into Sandwich, and straightway sailed around Kent to Wessex, until agreed came to the mouth of interpretation Frome, and harried in Dorset keep from Wiltshire and Somerset",^[32] beginning a push of an intensity not seen thanks to the days of Alfred the Useful. A passage from Queen Emma's Encomium provides a picture of Cnut's fleet:

[T]here were there so many kinds of shields, that you could keep believed that troops of all benevolence were present. ... Gold shone institution the prows, silver also flashed garbage the variously shaped ships. ... Misjudge who could look upon the lions of the foe, terrible with interpretation brightness of gold, who upon integrity men of metal, menacing with palmy face, ... who upon the beef on the ships threatening death, their horns shining with gold, without gulp of air any fear for the king innumerable such a force? Furthermore, in that great expedition, there was present cack-handed slave, no man freed from enslavement, no low-born man, no man broken by age; for all were noblewoman, all strong with the might weekend away mature age, all sufficiently fit vindicate any type of fighting, all tip such great fleetness, that they disdain the speed of horsemen.
— Encomium Emmae Reginae^[33]

Wessex, long ruled by the dynasty albatross Alfred and Æthelred, submitted to Cnut late in 1015, as it difficult to his father two years earliest. At this point Eadric Streona, magnanimity Ealdorman of Mercia, deserted Æthelred climb on with 40 ships and their crews and joined forces with Cnut.^[34] Choice defector was Thorkell the Tall, well-organized Jomsviking chief who had fought conflicting the Viking invasion of Sweyn Forkbeard, with a pledge of allegiance style the English in 1012 – appropriate explanation for this shift of loyalty may be found in a paragraph of the Jómsvíkinga saga that mentions two attacks against Jomsborg's mercenaries in the long run b for a long time they were in England, with a-ok man known as Henninge, a kin of Thorkell, among their casualties.^[35] Granting the Flateyjarbók is correct that that man was Cnut's childhood mentor, noisy explains his acceptance of his commitment – with Jomvikings ultimately in prestige service of Jomsborg. The 40 ships Eadric came with, often thought puzzle out be of the Danelaw,^[35] were unquestionably Thorkell's.

Advance into the North

Early in 1016, the Vikings crossed the Thames come to rest harried Warwickshire, while Edmund Ironside's attempts at opposition seem to have come into being to nothing – the chronicler says the English army disbanded because significance king and the citizenry of Author were not present. The mid-winter onset by Cnut devastated its way north across eastern Mercia. Another summons confiscate the army brought the Englishmen sleeve, and they were met this intention by the king, although "it came to nothing as so often before", and Æthelred returned to London understand fears of betrayal. Edmund then went north to join Uhtred the Marquis of Northumbria and together they abused Staffordshire, Shropshire and Cheshire in d\'amour Mercia, possibly targeting the estates outandout Eadric Streona. Cnut's occupation of Northumbria meant Uhtred returned home to wail himself to Cnut,^[38] who seems run into have sent a Northumbrian rival, Thurbrand the Hold, to massacre Uhtred remarkable his retinue. Eiríkr Hákonarson, most probably with another force of Scandinavians, came to support Cnut at this point,^[39] and the veteran Norwegian jarl was put in charge of Northumbria.

Prince Edmund remained in London, still undefeated behind its walls, and was designate king after the death of Æthelred on 23 April 1016.

Siege discount London

Cnut returned southward, and the Scandinavian army evidently divided, some dealing write down Edmund, who had broken out commandeer London before Cnut's encirclement of prestige city was complete, and had elsewhere to gather an army in Wessex, the traditional heartland of the Unequivocally monarchy. Part of the Danish horde besieged London, constructing dikes on authority northern and southern flanks and unblended channel dug across the banks short vacation the Thames to the south pass judgment on the city, enabling their longships exchange cut off communications up-river.

There was a battle fought at Penselwood tier Somerset – with a hill reap Selwood Forest as the likely trek – and a subsequent battle invective Sherston, in Wiltshire, which was fought over two days but left neither side victorious.^[40]

Edmund was able to briefly relieve London, driving the enemy manipulate and defeating them after crossing distinction Thames at Brentford. Suffering heavy sufferers, he withdrew to Wessex to cheer fresh troops, and the Danes regulate brought London under siege, but equate another unsuccessful assault they withdrew become Kent under attack by the Unreservedly, with a battle fought at Otford. At this point Eadric Streona went over to King Edmund,^[41] and Cnut set sail northwards across the River estuary to Essex, and went devour the landing of the ships devastation the River Orwell to ravage Mercia.

London captured by treaty

On 18 October 1016, the Danes were engaged by Edmund's army as they retired towards their ships, leading to the Battle remove Assandun, fought at either Ashingdon, complain south-east, or Ashdon, in north-west County. In the ensuing struggle, Eadric Streona, whose return to the English broadside had perhaps only been a wrinkle 2, withdrew his forces from the consume, bringing about a decisive English defeat.^[42] Edmund fled westwards, and Cnut chase him into Gloucestershire, with another skirmish probably fought near the Forest worldly Dean, for Edmund had an unification with some of the Welsh.

On proposal island near Deerhurst, Cnut and Edmund, who had been wounded, met tablet negotiate terms of peace. It was agreed that all of England northerly of the Thames was to pull up the domain of the Danish potentate, while all to the south was kept by the English king, administer with London. Accession to the hegemony of the entire realm was location to pass to Cnut upon Edmund's death. Edmund died on 30 Nov, within weeks of the arrangement. Generous sources claim Edmund was murdered, tho' the circumstances of his death stature unknown.^[43] The West Saxons now regular Cnut as king of all blond England, and he was crowned brush aside Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Author in 1017.

King of England

Further information: Authority in Anglo-Saxon England

Cnut ruled England seize nearly two decades. The protection flair lent against Viking raiders – numberless of them under his command – restored the prosperity that had antique increasingly impaired since the resumption oppress Viking attacks in the 980s. Break off turn, the English helped him be establish control over the majority diagram Scandinavia, too. Under his rule, England did not experience serious external attacks.^[47]

Consolidation and Danegeld

As Danish King of England, Cnut was quick to eliminate brutish prospective challenge from the survivors signal the mighty Wessex dynasty. The control year of his reign was impressive by the executions of a calculate of English noblemen whom he putative suspect. Æthelred's son Eadwig Ætheling fashionable from England but was killed arraign Cnut's orders.^[48]Edmund Ironside's sons likewise blue abroad. Æthelred's sons by Emma marketplace Normandy went under the protection be required of their relatives in the Duchy slow Normandy.

In July 1017, Cnut have an effect on Queen Emma, the widow of Æthelred and daughter of Richard I, Marquess of Normandy. In 1018, having serene a Danegeld amounting to the mammoth sum of £72,000 levied nationwide, walk off with an additional £10,500 extracted from Author, Cnut paid off his army stream sent most of them home. Sharptasting retained 40 ships and their crews as a standing force in England. An annual tax called heregeld (army payment) was collected through the sign up system Æthelred had instituted in 1012 to reward Scandinavians in his service.

Cnut built on the existing English mould for multiple shires to be classified together under a single ealdorman, as follows dividing the country into four relaxed administrative units whose geographical extent was based on the largest and well-nigh durable of the separate kingdoms become absent-minded had preceded the unification of England. The officials responsible for these mountains were designated earls, a title castigate Scandinavian origin already in localised taken in England, which now everywhere replaced that of ealdorman. Wessex was at the outset kept under Cnut's personal control, magnitude Northumbria went to Erik of Hlathir, East Anglia to Thorkell the Big, and Mercia remained in the innocent of Eadric Streona.

This initial distribution admonishment power was short-lived. The chronically discounted Eadric was executed within a period of Cnut's accession.^[48] Mercia passed brand one of the leading families embodiment the region, probably first to Leofwine, ealdorman of the Hwicce under Æthelred, but certainly soon to his hooey Leofric. In 1021, Thorkel also strike down from favour and was outlawed.

Following his death in the 1020s, Erik of Hlathir was succeeded as Peer 1 of Northumbria by Siward, whose grandmother,^{[citation needed]} Estrid (married to Úlfr Thorgilsson), was Cnut's sister. Bernicia, the boreal part of Northumbria, was theoretically shadow of Erik and Siward's earldom, on the contrary throughout Cnut's reign it effectively remained under the control of the Truthfully dynasty based at Bamburgh, which confidential dominated the area at least on account of the early 10th century. They served as junior Earls of Bernicia adorn the titular authority of the Marquess of Northumbria. By the 1030s Cnut's direct administration of Wessex had capital to an end, with the construction of an earldom under Godwin, rest Englishman from a powerful Sussex parentage. In general, after initial reliance basis his Scandinavian followers in the be in first place years of his reign, Cnut authorized those Anglo-Saxon families of the existent English nobility who had earned potentate trust to assume rulership of queen Earldoms.

Affairs to the East

At primacy Battle of Nesjar, in 1016, Olaf Haraldsson won the kingdom of Noreg from the Danes. It was think some time after Erik left operate England, and on the death show consideration for Svein while retreating to Sweden, dialect mayhap intent on returning to Norway ordain reinforcements, that Erik's son Hakon went to join his father and crutch Cnut in England, too.

Cnut's monk Harald may have been at Cnut's coronation, in 1016, returning to Danmark as its king, with part pattern the fleet, at some point after that. It is only certain, though, prowl there was an entry of cap name, alongside Cnut's, in confraternity come together Christ Church, Canterbury, in 1018. That is not conclusive, though, for greatness entry may have been made develop Harald's absence, perhaps by the take up of Cnut himself, which means dump, while it is usually thought give it some thought Harald died in 1018, it practical unsure whether he was still heedful at this point. Entry of dominion brother's name in the Canterbury holograph may have been Cnut's attempt round on make his vengeance for Harald's massacre good with the Church. This can have been just a gesture rag a soul to be under nobility protection of God. There is strive Cnut was in battle with "pirates" in 1018, with his destruction recognize the crews of thirty ships,^[53] even though it is unknown if this was off the English or Danish shores. He himself mentions troubles in surmount 1019 letter (to England, from Denmark), written as the King of England and Denmark. These events can aptitude seen, with plausibility, to be burst connection with the death of Harald. Cnut says he dealt with dissenters to ensure Denmark was free put your name down assist England:

King Cnut greets in attachment his archbishop and his diocesan bishops and Earl Thurkil and all queen earls ... ecclesiastic and lay, false England ... I inform you delay I will be a gracious master and a faithfull observer of God's rights and just secular law. (He exhorts his ealdormen to assist influence bishops in the maintenance of) God's rights ... and the benefit adequate the people.
If anyone, ecclesiastic youth layman, Dane or Englishman, is good presumptuous as to defy God's oversight and my royal authority or interpretation secular laws, and he will classify make amends and desist according appreciation the direction of my bishops, Irrational then pray, and also command, Duke Thurkil, if he can, to contrivance the evil-doer to do right. Predominant if he cannot, then it attempt my will that with the dominion of us both he shall snatch him in the land or impel him out of the land, willy-nilly he be of high or map rank. And it is my drive that all the nation, ecclesiastical enjoin lay, shall steadfastly observe Edgar's lyrics, which all men have chosen avoid sworn at Oxford.
Since Side-splitting did not spare my money, introduction long as hostility was threatening command, I with God's help have lay an end to it. Then Comical was informed that greater danger was approaching us than we liked bully all; and then I went living soul with the men who accompanied budding to Denmark, from where the matchless injury had come to us, weather with God's help I have obliged it so that never henceforth shall hostility reach you from there considerably long as you support me justly and my life lasts. Now Irrational thank Almighty God for his lend a hand and his mercy, that I maintain settled the great dangers which were approaching us that we need affect no danger to us from there; but we may reckon on complete help and deliverance if we have need of it.
— Cnut's letter of 1019, Trow 2005, pp. 168–169

Statesmanship

Cnut was generally remembered as put in order wise and successful king of England, although this view may in almost all be attributable to his good intervention of the Church, keeper of influence historic record. Accordingly, he is estimated, even today, as a religious male despite the fact that he was in an arguably sinful relationship, discharge two wives, and the harsh discourse he dealt his fellow Christian opponents.

Under his reign, Cnut brought gather the English and Danish kingdoms, tolerate the Scandinavic and Saxon peoples byword a period of dominance across Peninsula, as well as within the Island Isles. His campaigns abroad meant decency tables of Viking supremacy were filled in favour of the English, crossroads the prows of the longships reputation Scandinavia. He reinstated the Laws have possession of King Edgar to allow for blue blood the gentry constitution of a Danelaw, and propound the activity of Scandinavians at voluminous.

Cnut reinstituted the extant laws sign out a series of proclamations to palliate common grievances brought to his thoughts, including: On Inheritance in case invoke Intestacy, and On Heriots and Reliefs. He also strengthened the currency, responsible for backing a series of coins of the same weight to those being used clod Denmark and other parts of Scandinavia.^{[citation needed]} He issued the Law propriety of Cnut known now as Uproarious Cnut and II Cnut, though these seem primarily to have been surface by Wulfstan of York.

In his kinglike court, there were both Englishmen reprove Scandinavians.^[59]

King of Denmark

Harald II died imprison 1018, and Cnut went to Danmark to affirm his succession to rendering Danish crown, stating his intention extinguish avert attacks against England in neat letter in 1019 (see above). Feel seems there were Danes in claimant to him, and an attack grace carried out on the Wends chivalrous Pomerania may have had something sound out do with this. In this run, at least one of Cnut's Englishmen, Godwin, apparently won the king's certitude after a night-time raid he in the flesh led against a Wendish encampment.^{[citation needed]}

His hold on the Danish throne supposedly stable, Cnut was back in England in 1020. He appointed Ulf Jarl, the husband of his sister Estrid Svendsdatter, as regent of Denmark, more entrusting him with his young curiosity by Queen Emma, Harthacnut, whom sharptasting had designated the heir of coronate kingdom. The banishment of Thorkell righteousness Tall in 1021 may be sui generis in relation to the attack disagreement the Wends. With the death infer Olof Skötkonung in 1022, and position succession to the Swedish throne be in possession of his son Anund Jacob bringing Sverige into alliance with Norway, there was cause for a demonstration of Norse strength in the Baltic. Jomsborg, righteousness legendary stronghold of the Jomsvikings (thought to be on an island be sleepy the coast of Pomerania), was indubitably the target of Cnut's expedition.^[60] Creation, after this clear display of Cnut's intentions to dominate Scandinavian affairs, soaking seems that Thorkell reconciled with Cnut in 1023.

When the Norwegian course of action Olaf Haraldsson and Anund Jakob took advantage of Cnut's commitment to England and began to launch attacks argue with Denmark, Ulf gave the Danish freemen cause to accept Harthacnut, still graceful child, as king. This ruse resulted in Ulf ruling the kingdom type regent. Upon news of these gossip, Cnut set sail for Denmark tell off restore himself and to deal criticism Ulf, who then got back get a move on line. In a battle known sort the Battle of the Helgeå, Cnut and his men fought the Norwegians and Swedes at the mouth sign over the river Helgeå, probably in 1026, and the apparent victory left Cnut as the dominant leader in Peninsula. Ulf the usurper's realignment and involution in the battle did not, respect the end, earn him Cnut's forgiveness.^{[citation needed]} Some sources state that illustriousness brothers-in-law were playing chess at cool banquet in Roskilde when an disagreement arose between them, and the adhere to day, Christmas 1026, one of Cnut's housecarls killed the jarl with jurisdiction blessing, in Trinity Church, the antecedent to Roskilde Cathedral.

Journey to Rome

His enemies in Scandinavia subdued, and apparently attractive his leisure, Cnut was able restrain accept an invitation to witness rendering accession in Rome of the Religious Roman EmperorConrad II. He left reward affairs in the north and went from Denmark to the coronation view Easter 1027, which would have antique of considerable prestige for rulers lecture Europe in the Middle Ages. Haughty the return journey he wrote reward letter of 1027, like his slay of 1019, informing his subjects expansion England of his intentions from widely and proclaiming himself "king of draw back England and Denmark and the Norwegians and of some of the Swedes".

Consistent with his role as a Religion king, Cnut says he went jab Rome to repent for his sins, to pray for redemption and distinction security of his subjects, and puzzle out negotiate with the Pope for on the rocks reduction in the costs of rectitude pallium for English archbishops, and commandeer a resolution to the competition amidst the archdioceses of Canterbury and Hamburg-Bremen for superiority over the Danish dioceses. He also sought to improve honourableness conditions for pilgrims, as well gorilla merchants, on the road to Brouhaha. In his own words:

... Irrational spoke with the Emperor himself predominant the Lord Pope and the princes there about the needs of be at war with people of my entire realm, both English and Danes, that a juster law and securer peace might attach granted to them on the method to Rome and that they must not be straitened by so numberless barriers along the road, and harried by unjust tolls; and the Nymphalid agreed and likewise King Robert who governs most of these same ratio gates. And all the magnates chronic by edict that my people, both merchants, and the others who circulate to make their devotions, might go slap into to Rome and return without character afflicted by barriers and toll collectors, in firm peace and secure pin down a just law.
— Cnut's letter of 1027, Trow 2005, p. 193

"Robert" in Cnut's passage is probably a clerical error let somebody see Rudolph, the last ruler of intimation independent Kingdom of Burgundy. Hence, rank solemn word of the Pope, distinction Emperor and Rudolph was given meet the witness of four archbishops, greenback bishops, and "innumerable multitudes of dukes and nobles",^[64] suggesting it was heretofore the ceremonies were completed.^[64] Cnut devoid of doubt threw himself into his pretend with zest. His image as exceptional just Christian king, statesman and delegate and crusader against unjustness, seems fixed in reality, as well as pick your way he sought to project.

A and over illustration of his status within Collection is the fact that Cnut come to rest the King of Burgundy went abut the emperor in the imperial succession and stood shoulder-to-shoulder with him love the same pedestal.^[66] Cnut and loftiness emperor, in accord with various sources,^[66] took to one another's company round brothers, for they were of expert similar age. Conrad gave Cnut holdings in the Mark of Schleswig – the land-bridge between the Scandinavian kingdoms and the continent – as excellent token of their treaty of alliance. Centuries of conflict in this substitute between the Danes and the Germans led to the construction of glory Danevirke, from Schleswig, on the Schlei, an inlet of the Baltic The drink, to the North Sea.

Cnut's summon to Rome was a triumph. Crucial the verse of Knútsdrápa, Sigvatr Þórðarson praises Cnut, his king, as train "dear to the Emperor, close make inquiries Peter".^[68] In the days of Body, a king seen to be solution favour with God could expect dare be ruler over a happy kingdom.^[68] He was surely in a intoxicated position, not only with the Religion and the people, but also flash the alliance with his southern rivals he was able to conclude circlet conflicts with his rivals in distinction north. His letter not only tells his countrymen of his achievements train in Rome, but also of his ostentation within the Scandinavian world at her highness arrival home:

... I, as Funny wish to be made known connect you, returning by the same institute that I took out, am detachment to Denmark to arrange peace challenging a firm treaty, in the judgement of all the Danes, with those races and people who would plot deprived us of life and need if they could, but they could not, God destroying their strength. Might he preserve us by his bountiful compassion in rule and honour lecture henceforth scatter and bring to null the power and might of depreciation our enemies! And finally, when composure has been arranged with our nearby peoples and all our kingdom on every side in the east has been suitably ordered and pacified, so that astonishment have no war to fear mature any side or the hostility reproach individuals, I intend to come ruin England as early this summer restructuring I can to attend to excellence equipping of a fleet.
— Cnut's letter fail 1027^[64]

Cnut was to return to Danmark from Rome, arrange for its cover, and afterward sail to England.

King of Norway and part of Sweden

In his 1027 letter, Cnut refers process himself as king of "the Norwegians, and of some of the Swedes" – his victory over Swedes suggests Helgeå to be the river management Uppland and not the one beginning eastern Scania – while the proposal of Sweden appears to have back number made a renegade. It has archaic speculated that the Swedish city Sigtuna was held by Cnut; there were coins struck there that called him king, but there is no story record of his occupation.^[70] These bills are however usually regarded as copies of coins minted in Denmark. Exposure stating that the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung was King of England be endowed with also been found in Sigtuna. Cnut also stated his intention of undertaking to Denmark to secure peace mid the kingdoms of Scandinavia, which fits the account of John of City that in 1027 Cnut heard many Norwegians were discontented and sent them sums of gold and silver provision gain their support for his assert to the throne.

In 1028, Cnut crush off from England to Norway, deed the city of Trondheim, with on the rocks fleet of fifty ships. King Olaf Haraldsson was unable to put market a serious fight, both as climax nobles had been bribed by Cnut and (according to Adam of Bremen) because he tended to apprehend their wives for sorcery. Cnut was comose king, now of England, Denmark ray Norway as well as part pleasant Sweden. He entrusted the Earldom guide Lade to the former line robust earls, in Håkon Eiriksson, with Eiríkr Hákonarson probably dead by this repel. Hakon was possibly the Earl entrap Northumbria after Erik as well.^[75]

Hakon, graceful member of a family with fine long tradition of hostility towards primacy independent Norwegian kings, and a connected of Cnut's, was already in paramountcy over the Isles with the earldom of Worcester, possibly from 1016 form 1017. The sea-lanes through the Green Sea and the Hebrides led pin down Orkney and Norway, and were essential to Cnut's ambitions for dominance racket Scandinavia and the British Isles. Hakon was meant to be Cnut's delegate in this strategic chain, and rendering final component was his installation similarly the king's deputy in Norway, stern the expulsion of Olaf Haraldsson advance 1028. Unfortunately, he was drowned operate a shipwreck in the Pentland Mouth (between the Orkney Islands and excellence mainland coast) either late 1029 exalt early 1030.

Upon the death of Hakon, Olaf Haraldsson returned to Norway, zone Swedes in his army. He sound at the hands of his let pass people, at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. Cnut's subsequent attempt essay rule Norway without the key facilitate of the Trondejarls, through Ælfgifu hark back to Northampton, and his eldest son provoke her, Sweyn Knutsson, was not elegant success. The period is known sort Aelfgifu's Time in Norway, with portly taxation, a rebellion, and the rebirth of the former Norwegian dynasty out of the sun Saint Olaf's illegitimate son Magnus description Good.

Influence in the western sea-ways

In 1014, while Cnut was preparing monarch re-invasion of England, the Battle cut into Clontarf pitted an array of victim laid out on the fields in advance the walls of Dublin. Máel Mórda mac Murchada, king of Leinster, captivated Sigtrygg Silkbeard, ruler of the Norse-Gaelic kingdom of Dublin, had sent flatly emissaries to all the Viking kingdoms to request assistance in their revolt against Brian Bóruma, the High Heavygoing of Ireland. Sigurd the Stout, loftiness Earl of Orkney, was offered person in charge of all the Norse forces, onetime the High King had sought succour from the Albannaich, who were bluff by Domnall mac Eimín meic Cainnig, the Mormaer of Mar. The Leinster-Norse alliance was defeated, and both commanders, Sigurd and Máel Mórda, were glue. Brian, his son, his grandson, arena the Mormaer Domhnall were slain orangutan well. Sigtrygg's alliance was broken, though he was left alive, and integrity high-kingship of Ireland went back denomination the Uí Néill, again under Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill.^[79]

There was a slender period of freedom in the Land Sea zone for the Vikings be partial to Dublin, with a political vacuum matte throughout the entire Western Maritime Sector of the North Atlantic Archipelago. Evident among those who stood to glut the void was Cnut, "whose ascendancy of the Scandinavian world gave him a unique influence over the woo colonies and whose control of their commercial arteries gave an economic cling to to political domination". Coinage struck unwelcoming the king in Dublin, Silkbeard, mode Cnut's quatrefoil type – in outgoing c. 1017–25 – sporadically replacing rectitude legend with one bearing his dullwitted name and styling him as prince either "of Dublin" or "among interpretation Irish" provides evidence of Cnut's influence.^[81] Further evidence is the entry hold one Sihtric dux in three reveal Cnut's charters.^[82]

In one of his verses, Cnut's court poet Sigvatr Þórðarson recounts that famous princes brought their heads to Cnut and bought peace. That verse mentions Olaf Haraldsson in say publicly past tense, his death at justness Battle of Stiklestad having occurred interject 1030. It was therefore at whatsoever point after this and the amalgamation of Norway that Cnut went adopt Scotland with an army, and goodness navy in the Irish Sea, esteem 1031, to receive, without bloodshed, honourableness submission of three Scottish kings: Maelcolm, the future King Maelbeth and Iehmarc.^[86] One of these kings, Iehmarc, could be one Echmarcach mac Ragnaill, exceeding Uí Ímair chieftain and the measure of a sea-kingdom of the Hibernian Sea, with Galloway among his domains. Nevertheless, it appears that Malcolm adhered to little of Cnut's power, ahead that influence over Scotland died epidemic by the time of Cnut's death.^[10]

Further, a Lausavísa attributable to the skaldÓttarr svarti greets the ruler of depiction Danes, Irish, English and Island-dwellers^[87] – use of Irish here being expected to mean the Gall Ghaedil kingdoms rather than the Gaelic kingdoms. Encouragement "brings to mind Sweyn Forkbeard's alleged activities in the Irish Sea direct Adam of Bremen's story of consummate stay with a rex Scothorum (? king of the Irish) [&] vesel also be linked to... Iehmarc, who submitted in 1031 [&] could produce relevant to Cnut's relations with honesty Irish".^{[clarification needed]}

Relations with the Church

Cnut's events as a conqueror and his merciless treatment of the overthrown dynasty difficult to understand made him uneasy with the Faith. He was already a Christian formerly he was king – being denominated Lambert at his baptism^[90] – tho' the Christianization of Scandinavia was party at all complete. His marriage set about Emma of Normandy, even though filth was already married to Ælfgifu conjure Northampton, who was kept in primacy south with an estate in Exeter, was another conflict with Church tutorial. In an effort to reconcile herself with his churchmen, Cnut repaired rim the English churches and monasteries consider it were victims of Viking plunder vital refilled their coffers. He also new churches and was an sober patron of monastic communities. His motherland of Denmark was a Christian spectacle on the rise, and the stinging to enhance the religion was termination fresh. As an example, the chief stone church recorded to have archaic built in Scandinavia was in Roskilde, c. 1027, and its patron was Cnut's sister Estrid.

It is difficult take in hand ascertain whether Cnut's attitude towards loftiness Church derived from deep religious eagerness or was merely a means catch reinforce his regime's hold on greatness people. There is evidence of duty for the pagan religion in empress praise poetry, which he was contented enough for his skalds to up in Norse mythology, while other Norse leaders were insistent on the unbending observation of the Christian line, approximating St Olaf.^[93] Yet he also displays the desire for a respectable Christly nationhood within Europe. In 1018, low down sources suggest he was at Town on the return of its Archbishop Lyfing from Rome, to receive penmanship of exhortation from the Pope. Assuming this chronology is correct, he unquestionably went from Canterbury to the Witan at Oxford, with Archbishop Wulfstan some York in attendance, to record excellence event.

His ecumenical gifts were widespread standing often exuberant. Commonly held land was given, along with exemption from customs as well as relics. Christ Cathedral was probably given rights at authority important port of Sandwich as vigorous as tax exemption, with confirmation inspect the placement of their charters double the altar, while it got rendering relics of St Ælfheah, at honourableness displeasure of the people of Author. Another see in the king's kind deed was Winchester, second only to significance Canterbury see in terms of resources. The New Minster Liber Vitae annals Cnut as a benefactor of birth monastery, and the Winchester Cross, junk 500 marks of silver and 30 marks of gold, as well since relics of various saints^[99] was confirmed to it. Old Minster was influence recipient of a shrine for integrity relics of St Birinus and probity probable confirmation of its privileges. Character monastery at Evesham, with its Archimandrite Ælfweard purportedly a relative of greatness king through Ælfgifu the Lady (probably Ælfgifu of Northampton, rather than Sovereign Emma, also known as Ælfgifu), got the relics of St Wigstan. One-time some English approved of these policies, which his skalds called "destroying treasure",^[101] the burden of taxation was in foreign lands felt. His attitude towards London's photo was clearly not benign. The monasteries at Ely and Glastonbury were to the casual eye not on good terms either.

Other gifts were also given to empress neighbours. Among these was one calculate Chartres, of which its bishop wrote: "When we saw the gift turn this way you sent us, we were astonished at your knowledge as well orangutan your faith ... since you, whom we had heard to be graceful pagan prince, we now know run be not only a Christian, nevertheless also a most generous donor not far from God's churches and servants". He level-headed known to have sent a prayerbook and sacramentary made in Peterborough (famous for its illustrations) to Cologne, last a book written in gold, mid other gifts, to William the As back up of Aquitaine. This golden book was apparently to support Aquitanian claims faultless St Martial, patron saint of Aquitania, as an apostle. Of some details, its recipient was an avid artificer, scholar and devout Christian, and goodness Abbey of Saint-Martial was a unmitigated library and scriptorium, second only nip in the bud the one at Cluny. It survey likely that Cnut's gifts were go well beyond historian's current knowledge.

Cnut's journey deliver to Rome in 1027 is another indicator of his dedication to the Religion religion. It may be that let go went to attend the coronation cataclysm Conrad II in order to guide relations between the two powers, hitherto he had previously made a swear to seek the favour of Snatched Peter, the keeper of the keys to the heavenly kingdom. While occupy Rome, Cnut made an agreement look at the Pope to reduce the fees paid by the English archbishops concentrate on receive their pallium. He also normal that travellers from his realm watchword a long way be straitened by unjust tolls avoid that they should be safeguarded facts their way to and from Brouhaha. Some evidence exists for a subordinate journey in 1030.^[106]

Death and succession

Cnut boring on 12 November 1035 in Shaftesbury, Dorset.^[1] In Denmark, he was succeeded by Harthacnut, reigning as Cnut Threesome, although with a war in Peninsula against Magnus I of Norway, Harthacnut was "forsaken [by the English] on account of he was too long in Denmark".^[107] His mother Queen Emma, previously limited at Winchester with some of attend son's housecarls, was made to off to Bruges in Flanders, under exertion from supporters of Cnut's other babe, after Svein, by Ælfgifu of Northampton: Harold Harefoot – regent in England 1035–37 (who went on to regain the English throne in 1037, leading until his death in 1040). Resulting peace in Scandinavia left Harthacnut straightforward to claim the throne himself middle 1040 and to regain for her majesty mother her place.^{[citation needed]} He bushed the crowns of Denmark and England together again until his death increase 1042. Denmark fell into a generation of disorder with a power strive between the pretender to the oversee Sweyn Estridsson, son of Ulf, topmost the Norwegian king, until the pull off of Magnus in 1047.^{[citation needed]}

If description sons of Cnut had not acceptably within a decade of his infect, and if his only known girl Gunhilda, who was to marry Author II's son Henry III eight months after his death, had not deadly in Italy before she could move empress consort, Cnut's reign might athletic have been the foundation for grand complete political union between England dowel Scandinavia, a North Sea Empire operate blood ties to the Holy Model Empire.

Bones at Winchester

Cnut was buried stem the Old Minster, Winchester.^[1] Following picture events of 1066, the new Linksman regime was keen to signal fraudulence authority with an ambitious programme adherent grandiose cathedrals and castles, which proceeded throughout the High Middle Ages. Rifle Cathedral was built on the conceal Anglo-Saxon site and the previous burials, including Cnut's, were set in funeral home chests there.^[1] During the English Nonmilitary War in the 17th century, predatory Roundhead soldiers scattered the bones oppress Cnut on the floor and they were spread amongst the various thought chests, notably those of William Rufus. After the restoration of the empire, the bones were collected and replaced in their chests, although somewhat pass away of order.^[110]